Social movement Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words

Social movement - Essay Example s in India which was hard to ascertain since many gays in India tend to maintain their sexuality as a secret because homosexuality in the Indian culture is considered both immoral and unethical. The actual number of gays in India is much more than 2.5 million that is the officially recorded population of gays in India (â€Å"India’s gay rights†) since the gays inside the closet are excluded from this figure. The gay march was a wonderful opportunity for the gays both in and out of the closets in India since it not only provided them with a sense of identity and community, but also encouraged more of them to come out of the closet and declare their sexuality to their friends and family and be gays openly since it is no more a crime in India. The gay march was strategically conducted to change the cultural perception that homosexuality is immoral or unethical. â€Å"While†¦many challenges lie ahead, †¦a cultural shift is occurring and the 2009 ruling paved the way† (â€Å"Indias gay

Why the Legal Drinking Age Shouldnt be lowered Essay Example for Free

Why the Legal Drinking Age Shouldnt be lowered Essay In the United States, the legal drinking age for all fifty states and the District of Columbia is twenty-one. The drinking age is twenty-one because the government decided this is when a person becomes legally responsible to handle the repercussions of consuming alcohol. The U. S. has the highest legal drinking age in the world. Only four countries in the world have a legal drinking age over eighteen, making the US an exception rather than the rule. Some people may argue that the government should lower the drinking age since you legally become an adult at age eighteen, but I completely understand this law and am totally for it. Underage drinking has become an epidemic that has spread all over the world, but more so in the United States than any other country. This is disturbing because the brain is not fully developed until a person is around twenty-two years of age. Therefore, it should be harder for minors to obtain alcohol, and the legal drinking age should not be lowered. What is alcohol, and where did it come from? Alcohol is a natural substance formed by the reaction of fermenting sugar with yeast. The production of alcohol started about 10,000 years ago. It all started around the Black and Caspian Seas with wine, and slowly made its way around the surrounding areas. Mesopotamia and Egypt were thriving with wine productions by 3,000 B. C. (Narconon). A thousand years later, a Roman God, Dionysus, started appearing in the literature, and was the god of the grape harvest. Then, about 700 years after that, in addition to wine, India started manufacturing beer. This new production spread rapidly, and the Hebrews adopted the new beverage for many different new medicines. After that, the Jews began to use wine and beer in sacred rituals and ceremonies. Although some cultures accepted alcohol, others rejected it completely. Because these alcoholic beverages were spreading so quickly, they raised curiosity. A medical school in Italy began doing experiments, and finally developed something called distillation- a purer, stronger alcohol (Narconon). From Italy, these new drinks spread to England and Scotland, and eventually found their way over to America. Drunkenness became a huge problem in America, so the government passed the Prohibition Act of 1920. Originally, the eighteenth amendment to the U. S. Constitution prohibited the manufacture, sale, transport, import, or export of all alcoholic beverages. Upon its ratification by the states, Congress voted its approval in 1919. Thus the law was passed, and became known as the National Prohibition Act of 1920 (American Medical Association). The eighteenth amendment was repealed in 1933, which made the Prohibition Act null and unenforceable. After prohibition, most states restricted the minimum legal drinking age to twenty-one. Between 1970 and 1975, twenty-nine states lowered the minimum legal drinking age to eighteen, nineteen, or twenty. These changes were made when other activities, such as voting, were lowered. In between September 1976 and January 1983, the minimum legal drinking age for every state was set at the age of twenty-one. Although this is the law in our country, it is also incredibly easy for minors to obtain alcohol. As always, there are different ways to work around the law. These are issues that must be addressed. Some of these ways include a fake I. D. , a minor giving someone money to go buy it for them, going somewhere that will sell to minors, or even stealing it from their parents liquor cabinet. A fake I. D is fairly cheap and also easy to get if you know the right people. For the most part, if you were a minor trying to get alcohol you could go up to any random person, and eight times out of ten that person would go buy it for you. There are also places minors could go to buy it themselves like little gas stations around the lower socioeconomic societies. The reason that these gas stations will sell to minors is because it increases their sales, and because they will get little penalty for selling to minors. If they do get fined for it, the fine isn’t enough to make them stop. Alcohol generally is not secured in most homes so there is easy access for minors who have no fears about taking it from their parents. There has also been the increasing trend of parents not only providing alcohol, but encouraging its use in the home, under the assumption that minors will do it anyway and it’s better to do so in a supervised, safe environment. Underage drinking is one of the biggest problems that the U. S. faces, and is now considered a public health problem. Young adults have the highest prevalence of alcohol consumption than any other age group (Century Council). They also drink more heavily, experience more negative consequences, and engage in more harmful activities. Drinking at any age can have some of the worst effects on you and the people around you. Many young teens that experiment with alcohol believe there are no consequences to their actions. It is actually quite the opposite. Alcohol is associated with driving under the influence, violence and aggressiveness, sexual activity, smoking, and poor school performance. There are all of these problems, and then some that all started with alcohol. Driving under the influence or a DUI is classified under two categories, and can be given out if the person is under the influence of an intoxicating drink or a combination of an alcoholic beverage and drugs. There are felonies and misdemeanors. The difference between a misdemeanor and a felony is misdemeanor DUI charges means that the charge involved no injury or property damage, and the penalty can be up to 6 months in jail. A felony has injury and/or property damage, and the penalty could be up to three years in a state prison. This number fluctuates depending on the number of misdemeanors or felonies a person has had in the past. These laws are in place to not only protect the youth in America, but to also ensure that other innocent people on the roads do not get hurt. There are plenty of accidents that come from texting and driving already (which is the equivalent to drinking and driving) that to lower the drinking age, I think, would cause more alcohol-induced accidents. Underage drinking already contributes to more than 4,700 automobile wrecks a year (Centers for Disease Control and Prevention), and studies have shown that every twenty-two minutes someone will die of an alcohol related traffic accident (First Eagle Insurance Services). Although you probably think that it could never happen to you, other studies have shown that everyone has a forty percent chance of being in an accident involving alcohol use at some point in their life (Drug Free World). â€Å"Vehicle crashes remain the leading cause of death for minors age 15-20 years old† (Century Council). Aside from drinking and driving, there is also a two-way association between alcohol consumption and violence or aggressiveness. While individual behavior is shaped in large part by the environment, it is also manipulated by biological factors, and ultimately directed by the brain, but the brain is affected if large amounts of alcohol are consumed. The consumption of alcohol may promote aggressiveness and lead to victimization, which in turn leads to excessive consumption of alcohol. Violence and aggressive behaviors are those that are threatening, hostile, or damaging in a physical or nonphysical way. There have been multiple studies conducted that show there is a link between violent crimes and alcohol consumption. In 2012, the percentages of violent offenders who were drinking at the time of the offense were: â€Å"eighty-six percent of homicide offenders, thirty-seven percent of assault offenders, sixty percent of sexual offenders, up to fifty-seven percent of men, and twenty-seven percent of women involved in marital violence, and thirteen percent of child abusers† (NIAAA). A lot of times alcohol is accompanied by cigarettes, marijuana, or other hardcore drugs. Many researchers hypothesize that the ethanol in alcohol triggers a feeling of pleasure, and those feelings are reinforced when nicotine is added to the mix. Others think that those who abuse one substance will be more inclined to abuse other substances. Nicotine lowers blood alcohol concentration, so therefore a person who is smoking and drinking simultaneously would have to consume more alcohol in order to reach intoxication. Most people react differently to alcohol than others do. A lot of this has to do with the person’s age, gender, race/ethnicity, physical condition (weight, fitness level etc. ), amount of food consumed before drinking, use of drugs/prescription medications, and family history of alcohol problems. Usually when there is a family history of alcohol problems you will often see a history of some other type of disease linked to it. Some of these include: breast cancer, oral cancer, heart disease, strokes, diabetes, and cirrhosis of the liver. Twenty percent of alcohol is absorbed directly through the stomach walls into the bloodstream, and reaches all organs and tissues of the body within moments. The other eighty percent is processed through the gastrointestinal system. It is considered a drug, and is a sedative depressant of the central nervous system (Reeves). Alcohol can damage the dendrites at the end of a nerve cell causing disorder to brain functions. It is also capable of rupturing blood capillaries and veins. Aside from damaging nerves and veins, it can also damage the liver. It stops the liver’s ability to process fats, and can cause disease. The high sugar content in some alcoholic or mixed beverages can lead to hypoglycemia and predispose one to diabetes. Alcohol can also alter sleep patterns, basic motor functions, thoughts, and emotions. The consumption of alcohol on or at an above average rate can lead to alcoholism. Women metabolize alcohol more slowly than men. Because it stays in a womans bloodstream longer, it can cause more cellular damage of the kind that can trigger cancer. Alcohol also influences blood levels of estrogen and other hormones in ways that may make cancer more likely. For example, â€Å"compared to women who dont drink at all, women who have three alcoholic drinks per week have a 15% higher risk of breast cancer. Experts estimate that the risk of breast cancer goes up another 10% for each additional drink women regularly have each day. Girls ages 9-15 who have 3-5 drinks a week have 3 times the risk of developing benign breast lumps†(Breastcancer. org). These benign breast lumps can be a precursor to breast cancer. From this it is easy to see that the younger that someone starts consuming alcohol, the increased risk of cancer and loss of life is more likely. It might be easy to dismiss this issue as one of personal choice or preference. This discounts the social impact of drinking on society. â€Å"Alcohol costs American employers an estimated $134 billion in productivity losses, mostly due to missed work† (Ensuring solutions. org). The impact is not only economical though. Missed work impacts every worker at a job who must work that much harder to accomplish their work tasks. It also can decrease teamwork and morale due to resentment from the missed time at work, therefore decreasing productivity as well. Additionally, alcohol impacts every workers paycheck in other ways. As a rule, workers in America pay taxes on their pay as part of the social contract. These taxes are used for a variety of federal projects, such as ensuring a strong infrastructure, including maintenance of our highway system. â€Å"Alcohol related crashes costs the public $114. 3 billion annually† (MAAD). This is money that could be spent improving our roadways, bridges, and mass transit systems. This would also address shortfalls in other areas of the government budget, such as possibly addressing the furlough of air traffic controllers due to the current sequester. Not only is alcohol affecting society in terms of road safety, it is impacting air safety too. These quotes and statistics are not specifically for underage drinkers but as a sampling of society as a whole we can see that if adults are unable to drink heavily and prolonged without negative effects the same should be true of minors who have not yet developed full brain capacity and critical thinking skills. It is not just physical and social effects that are felt by people who overuse or abuse alcohol. â€Å"Among high school students, those who use alcohol are five times more likely to drop out than those who dont use alcohol. Alcohol is implicated in more than 40 percent of all college academic problems and in 28 percent of all college dropouts† (Alcoholcostcalculator. org). This has a ripple effect. High school and college dropouts on average earn less than those with secondary and post secondary degrees. This not only impacts the immediate quality of life it has long term effects reaching into retirement. Social Security is based on lifetime earned income. With the reduced earning potential of not having a diploma or degree underage drinkers set themselves up for living on a fixed income once they become old or infirm. This is not the only economic impact. A quick look at Rehabilitation Centers shows price ranges from $2,000-$30,000 for a 28 day stay. This does not include continuing aftercare. There are also legal fees for DUIs or Public Intoxication citations, plus bar tabs prior to the cessation of drinking. â€Å"Out of every $100 American consumers spend, about $1 goes to alcohol† (Vo). The average household income is around $50,000 per year, meaning that on average $500 a year is spent on alcohol, for an approximate lifetime average of $35,000. â€Å"In 2007 the death toll from teen drunk driving accidents was 1,393† (Drug Free World). The economic impact of funeral expenses, which on average total around $6,000, is nothing in terms of emotional cost. Many parents who lose a child end up divorcing, tearing apart families in the process. This may also lead to alcohol or other drug abuse in the parents or siblings, resulting in further economic, social, and societal impacts. It’s a vicious cycle and one that could be avoided by continuing to keep the drinking age at the current level. There are numerous warning signs that a minor may have an issue with underage drinking and it is important for those involved in the minor’s life to recognize these to curb an issue before it begins. These include physical, emotional, family, school, and social problems. Parents, teachers, and friends should look for physical signs such as fatigue, red and glazed eyes, or a lasting cough. Emotional indicators include personality changes, sudden mood changes, irritability, irresponsible behavior, low self esteem, poor judgment, and depression. The minor may start more arguments, break more rules and withdraw from their family. There will be a decreased interest in school, drop in grades, increased absences, truancy, and a rise in discipline issues. The minor may show a big social change, with new friends, a change in style of dress, and possible problems with the law. This list is not exhaustive, but from the examples given it shows that underage drinkers have a wealth of issues that will affect them negatively for quite some time. With all of this in mind, I do not feel that lowering the legal drinking age would be in our county’s best interest. The government has these laws in place to keep our country and the people in it safe, and if these laws were to change it would send our country into a downward spiral. I feel that the rates of alcohol induced traffic accidents, rates of violent crimes related to alcohol, rates of certain types of diseases, and much more would upsurge drastically. I also feel that if our government doesn’t address these issues with more force and power, minors will keep doing what they have been doing and nothing will change. Works Cited â€Å"Alcohol Alert. † www. pubs. niaaa. nih. gov/publications/aa38. htm. National Institute on Alcohol Abuse and Alcoholism (NIAAA). N. d. Web. 25 April 2013. â€Å"Drinking Alcohol. † www. breatscancer. org. 18 January 2013. Web. 4 May 2013. â€Å"Drunk Driving in America. † www. maad. org/media-center. Mothers Against Drunk Driving (MAAD). N. d. Web. 25 March 2013. â€Å"Ensuring Solutions to Alcohol Problems. † www. ensuringsolutions. org. N. d. Web. 4 May 2013. â€Å"Minimum Legal Drinking Age. † www. cdc. gov/alcohol/facts-sheets/mlda. htm. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC). 7 November 2012. Web. 19 March 2013. â€Å"Minimum Legal Drinking Age: Brief History. † www. ama-assn. org. American Medical Association (AMA). N. d. Web. 19 March 2013. Narconon Drug Information Department, ed. â€Å"Alcohol History. † www. narconon.org/drug-information/alcohol-history. Narcanon International. N. d. Web. 25 March 2013. â€Å"Problems at School. † www. alcoholcostcalculator. org. Ensuring Solutions to Alcohol Problems. N. d. Web. 4 May 2013. Reeves, Pat. â€Å"What Alcohol Does to Your Body. † www. foodalive. org/articles/alcohol. htm. Complementary Natural Healthcare Council (CNHC). N. d. Web. 23 March 2013. â€Å"Teenage Drunk Driving. † www. firsteagle. com/tdd. htm. The First Eagle Insurance Services. N. d. Web. 22 April 2013. Vo, L. T. â€Å"What American Spends on Booze. † www. npr. org. National Public Radio. 2013. Web. 4 May 2013.

Eating Disorders, Anorexia and Martha Stewart - The Seduction of Control, Perfection, and Fantasy :: Exploratory Essays Research Papers

Eating Disorders, Anorexia and Martha Stewart - The Seduction of Control, Perfection, and Fantasy I have a strange fascination with Martha Stewart. I read Just Desserts by Jerry Oppenheimer and my interest in her peaked: she sounded, as portrayed in that book, as the toxic boss (we’ll call her Sheila, though it is not her real name) from whom I had just "divorced" myself by quitting. I could see Sheila emasculating her husband on a daily basis, screaming obscenities at her employees (that didn’t take much imagination), and plotting to take over the world. Despite these issues, Martha and Sheila alternately inspired me and repelled me. They both showed me power at a time when I was just developing my own sense of being in the world. Those two women were in control; if they weren’t, they were miserable and made every one miserable too. It is that sense of perfection and control that leads too many women, teens, and even children to become anorexic. Obviously, Martha Stewart is not anorexic; while some may proclaim that she is fixated with food, most of her attention is really on decorating. Sheila was displayed a few minor symptoms of anorexia, although we ex-employees believe she was a frequent user of coke instead of dieting. I am not arguing that either of them is anorexic; instead, I want to explain how their obsessions can be linked to anorexia. Anorexia is about much more than food, just as Martha Stewart is. The control over food is just one aspect of anorexia and what I call Marthamania. Control over one's body, fantasy and a regression into girlhood is a common aspect of both. Of course, the anorexic's and Marthamaniac's version of control is an ironic one. Some anorexia researchers claim that anorexia offers its victims a way to control the development of their bodies. Since anorexia occurs most frequently in the years of puberty, researchers suggest that anorexics have difficulty adapting to the roles that come with "becoming a woman." That fear, hatred, or despair of becoming all it means to be a woman in today's society is wrapped up in Martha Stewart. She is a fiercely independent woman, succeeding financially in a man's world. Formerly a stock broker, she has combined feminine and masculine roles and is able to buy her home and decorate it too. Stewart sells a dream, of course, like many entrepreneurs. Eating Disorders, Anorexia and Martha Stewart - The Seduction of Control, Perfection, and Fantasy :: Exploratory Essays Research Papers Eating Disorders, Anorexia and Martha Stewart - The Seduction of Control, Perfection, and Fantasy I have a strange fascination with Martha Stewart. I read Just Desserts by Jerry Oppenheimer and my interest in her peaked: she sounded, as portrayed in that book, as the toxic boss (we’ll call her Sheila, though it is not her real name) from whom I had just "divorced" myself by quitting. I could see Sheila emasculating her husband on a daily basis, screaming obscenities at her employees (that didn’t take much imagination), and plotting to take over the world. Despite these issues, Martha and Sheila alternately inspired me and repelled me. They both showed me power at a time when I was just developing my own sense of being in the world. Those two women were in control; if they weren’t, they were miserable and made every one miserable too. It is that sense of perfection and control that leads too many women, teens, and even children to become anorexic. Obviously, Martha Stewart is not anorexic; while some may proclaim that she is fixated with food, most of her attention is really on decorating. Sheila was displayed a few minor symptoms of anorexia, although we ex-employees believe she was a frequent user of coke instead of dieting. I am not arguing that either of them is anorexic; instead, I want to explain how their obsessions can be linked to anorexia. Anorexia is about much more than food, just as Martha Stewart is. The control over food is just one aspect of anorexia and what I call Marthamania. Control over one's body, fantasy and a regression into girlhood is a common aspect of both. Of course, the anorexic's and Marthamaniac's version of control is an ironic one. Some anorexia researchers claim that anorexia offers its victims a way to control the development of their bodies. Since anorexia occurs most frequently in the years of puberty, researchers suggest that anorexics have difficulty adapting to the roles that come with "becoming a woman." That fear, hatred, or despair of becoming all it means to be a woman in today's society is wrapped up in Martha Stewart. She is a fiercely independent woman, succeeding financially in a man's world. Formerly a stock broker, she has combined feminine and masculine roles and is able to buy her home and decorate it too. Stewart sells a dream, of course, like many entrepreneurs.

The Theory Of Storage :: essays research papers

The Theory of Storage THE THEORY OF STORAGE. â€Å"THE SUPPLY OF STORAGE REFERS NOT TO THE SUPPLY Of STORAGE SPACE BUT TO THE SUPPLY OF COMMODITIES AS INVENTORIES. IN GENERAL A SUPPLIER OF STORAGE IS ANYONE WHO HOLDS TITLE TO STOCKS WITH A VIEW TO THEIR FUTURE SALE, EITHER IN THEIR PRESENT OR IN A MODIFIED FORM. SINCE PRODUCTION IS NOT STABLE FOR ALL COMMODITIES ESPECIALLY ARGICULTURAL CONSUMERS DEMAND THAT THE STORAGE FUNCTION BE SO PERFORMED THAT THE FLOW OF COMMODITIES FOR SALE WILL BE MADE RELATIVELY STABLE." (BRENNAN P. 51) "the theory purports to provide an explanation of the holding of all stocks, including those for which there is not an active future market. it will be shown that, on the supply side, in addition to the marginal expenditure on physical storage and the marginal convenience yield another variable, a risk premium, is required to explain the holding of stocks as functions of price spreads. in the empirical part of the study the theory will be applied to stocks of several agricultural commodities. the risk premium for each commodity will be measured residually under specified conditions by deducting form the price spread between two periods the other two components of the marginal cost of storage." (brennan p.50) IN GENERAL WE CAN OBTAIN A MEASURE OF THE RELATIVE RISK PREMIUMS INVOLVED IN THE STORAGE OF DIFFERENT COMMODITITES. "allen Paul, in a 1970 American journal of agricultural economics article, studied the pricing of grain storage space in the u.s. during the surplus period of the 1950s and 1960s. Paul's work differs from other works in that he investigates the pricing of all grain storage not just that available to a particular commodity. While brennan's marginal storage cost is from the point of view of the owner of the grain, Paul is looking at the first component only.

Living with Strangers

If you live with noise, Ignorance and unnecessary attention as norms every day. I assume you live In a city with sprawling life. If you especially want to go to one of these kind of cities, then you could easily go to New York. Since a lot of the aspects you would presume are in a metropolis, actually finds place at this special place. A lot of people think that the attractions make the city unique with skyscrapers reaching above the skies.A tall and proud lady greets everyone that arrives, and referred numerous times through poetry and songs, but at this case, it is not the surroundings hat Is special, about this city. Instead, we have to look towards the people offence York. They make New York unique because of the Ignorance they are capable of showing in public. In this essay, Sir Hustled primarily focuses on a unwritten law – the pretend-it-isn't-happening-law.It is a odd phenomenon because one would think that people move to the cities to be around other people and to get in contact with other lost souls when, in fact, most of the time is spent indoors or looking down at the ground In a crowded subway. This can be seen throughout the story, as an example, oh can see at the beginning where she moves to New York from a small town In Minnesota where it is normal to say â€Å"hi†, and if you do not do it, then it will be considered as arrogance. Compared to New York that saying â€Å"hi† to a stranger would be considered bizarre.But the question is what way, is the right way to react if someone greets you? This is the reason why Sir Hustled does not have an answer to this but this Is why she chose to write an essay. It Is simply a subjective collection of her thoughts on this Issue that she has divided Into three mall parts, the first being her personal back-story. Not only does this provide the reader a quick Idea of who the author is and how she feels with a environment so different than what she is used to, but more essential, an introd uction like this is fundamental in all genres if you want to get a connection with your readers.First of all, we feel anonymous in dense cities because everyone are busy doing something else, and do not know, which could Indicate the reason to why there is much crime In huge cities. Second, this may be the fact to why people are acting crazy In public, since you do not know even a fraction of the citizens, you allow yourself to be more extroverted. Hustled supports her own theory about the urban laws by saying that in every city, there are couple of nuts who delivers their message. Perhaps about that love is only sent from Jesus Christ, or we are doomed in year x.However, it seems like these nuts are not getting any response, but they start a reaction of emotions inside the head of regular people â€Å"pretend it isn't happening, pretend It Isn't happening†¦ â€Å". To this point, Sirs Hustled has criticized the urban law strictly, however, In the final part of the essay, It seems like she acknowledges the advantages of this effect because if you are getting involved in a discussion, it can end up horribly wrong, if you Just simply ask another person politely, to turn off his cigarette inside a metro, you could get a threat with your life at stakes.Thus, he still broke the urban law about â€Å"pretend it isn't happening†, and verbally attacks the little man, who was asking polite. On the other Sir Hustler's daughter, Sophie, took the subway when suddenly a nut said to Sophie how much he loved her. She tried to ignore him, but at the end she felt uncomfortable ignoring him. Then, suddenly, another person interrupted, trying to be sarcastic and funny. By doing this he acknowledged what he Just have had bean witness to in public.This man helped Sophie, he helped her give a smile on her face, and through this, he changed her entire day. Though, he could have been an audience and it would have seemed like it never had happened. What might only seem a s a scenario could be in the next moment reality. In other words, this opens a window to a new world of personalities, and this is what Sir Hustled is trying to express unconscious. A dull and static part of the human, suddenly becomes personalized and shows us that charm and argumentation, can help us towards coming stronger individuals.If you make a perspective to the town where Hustled is from in Minnesota, you will notice that Just because you use the meet-&-greet technique, where you Just monotone say â€Å"h'† to another, does not make you to a more real person than one who ignores you in New York. The unspoken laws of a society might help people get by in a certain environment but ultimately it prevents us from thinking of others complexity. Instead of thinking everyone is a individual, you think everyone is a part of a group. If you want to become someone, you have to trust yourself.

MacBeth Essays (730 words) - Characters In Macbeth, Free Essays

MacBeth Essays (730 words) - Characters In Macbeth, Free Essays MacBeth Everyone who is mortal has at least one flaw. Some are more serious than others. For example, some people have addictions to gambling, while other people can't remember to put the milk away after they use it. After a while though, a person's flaws come back to haunt them. The tragedy MacBeth is no exception to this. In it, many of the character's die. And the reason is that they have a flaw, that would eventually lead to their downfall. Not every character is deserving of his fate though. Some characters have a minor flaw, which shouldn't lead to their death. But other's have a major flaw, which is would eventually lead them to their death anyway. The first Thane of Cawdor, is killed by MacBeth for trying to lead a revolution against England. His fatal flaw was that he was according to Ross, "a disloyal traitor". The thane of Cawdor was greedy, and wanted the throne of England for himself, and as a result was murdered. But his murder wasn't really disheartening, because the Thane of Cawdor, deserved his fate. He was leading a battle, in which many lost their lives, for the sake of greed, and deserved to die because of his flaw. Duncan was the King of England, and was murdered by MacBeth. He was murdered, because in order for MacBeth to fulfill his plan and become king, Duncan would have to die. Duncan's fatal flaw was that he was too trusting. For example, he thought that none of his friends could really be enemies. If Duncan was more careful about his safety at MacBeth's castle, he may have had a chance to survive. But Duncan's flaw, wasn't something so horrible that he should die. Most people need to trust each other more, and just because one person did, he shouldn't have to die. MacBeth's former best friend, Banquo was also killed by MacBeth. Banquo was killed, because he knew too much about the murder of Duncan. But that was not his fatal flaw. Banquo's fatal flaw was that although he knew that MacBeth killed Duncan, he really didn't do anything about it. There were many opportunities where Banquo could tell someone such as MacDuff what he thought about the murders. But Banquo didn't deserve death, just because he didn't act quickly in telling someone that MacBeth killed Duncan. Banquo knew that if he said anything, no one would believe him, and he would be executed. Lady MacBeth is MacBeth's wife. She is his coconspirator in killing Duncan. Although she helps MacBeth get the courage to commit the murder, she isn't willing to do it herself. She uses the excuse that Duncan looked too much like her father. Unlike MacBeth though, it is harder for Lady MacBeth to live with the fact that she helped cause the murder of the king. And in the end, it makes her so crazy that she commits suicide. Whether or not Lady MacBeth deserved her fate is a tricky question. Although she did encourage MacBeth to murder Duncan, she feels regret for her action. Also, she realized what she did was wrong. But in my opinion, she realized it a little too late, and Duncan was still dead so she did deserve her fate. MacBeth was the focus of the entire play, and that's why it was named after him. All of the problems start when he murder's Duncan. He commits the murder because of his fatal flaw, he is too ambitious. If he wasn't so ambitious and determined to be king, then he would never have killed Duncan. And if MacBeth didn't kill Duncan none of the other characters would die. MacBeth deserved his fate more than any other characters in the play. He did many things wrong. First he killed Duncan, then he killed Banquo. After that, MacBeth killed MacDuff's family. And worst of all, MacBeth disturbed the balance of nature. Also, MacBeth didn't feel any remorse until he was faced with death. If MacBeth just waited for his time, he would have been king, and have had a chance to enjoy it. Every character that died in MacBeth had one fatal flaw. The first Thane of Cawdor was a traitor. Duncan was too trusting. Banquo didn't do anything about the knowledge he had. Lady MacBeth helped plot the murder of Duncan. And MacBeth, destroyed the natural order and harmony of nature. But not all of the characters who died deserved to die because of their flaws. Duncan shouldn't have been punished for trusting someone, and Banquo would

Strategic Development of Apple Corporation

Strategic Development of Apple Corporation Executive Summary This paper dwells upon strategic development of Apple and contains certain recommendation on implementation of the most appropriate strategy. The company is famous for its innovative approach and high quality of products and services provided.Advertising We will write a custom term paper sample on Strategic Development of Apple Corporation specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More However, the corporation holds quite a small market share and some researchers note that the company should expand. Researchers refer to growth of such markets as South America and Asia. It is stressed that Apple could benefit from producing products for millions of potential customers at lower prices to make Apple products more available. Nonetheless, this approach is unlikely to be effective as it may lead to loss of the market share Apple has now. Appearance of Apple in the market of low-priced consumer electronics will make it develop new strate gies to remain competitive in the market where Asian (Chinese and Indian) companies produce very cheap products. Therefore, the company has to focus on innovations. The present evaluation is based on secondary research. Works on Apple’s strategic development are analyzed and certain recommendations on how to improve the strategy used are provided. The present research may lack for data on the company’s expenditures but available information on Apple’s revenues illustrates effectiveness of the strategy employed.. Recommendations provided include the following. The new strategy should be comprehensive and involve research, innovation, quality and social responsibility. The company has to produce really innovative products which would shape and redefine the market. The use of green technology and contributing to development of communities will enable the company maintain its favorable image among its customers. Introduction Apple is one of the most successful compa nies and it is famous for its effective strategic development. The corporation managed to remain one of the leading producers of consumer electronics and software even after the recession and financial crisis of 2008. It is necessary to note that the company has to operate in one of the most competitive markets, the market of consumer electronics. This industry is booming and companies all over the world are trying to enter it and occupy certain niche. It is noteworthy that Apple is facing hard competition on the part of Asian companies that produce cheaper devices with similar options. At present, Apple again has to choose an appropriate strategy.Advertising Looking for term paper on business economics? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More However, before going into detail on the strategic development, it is important to mention major peculiarities of the company, its history and market. Apple announced that its revenue for second quarter of 2014 (ended in March) was $45.6 billion (Apple reports, 2014). The company is growing and its profits are increasing accordingly. Apple is famous for its â€Å"impressive† products: iPad, iPod nano, iPhone, Apple TV, iPod touch, MacBook, MacMini and so on (Hitt, Ireland Hoskisson, 2012, p. 16). The company started in 1976 as a computer business and has provided innovative products, which is regarded as one of its strategies and advantages. In 2003, Steve Jobs, a charismatic leader, introduced one of Apple’s products iTunes Online Music Store as a â€Å"turning point for the music industry† and â€Å"landmark stuff† which could not be overestimated (Hitt et al., 2012, p. 16). Jobs was right as it was a great success. It is noteworthy that the company had an inspiring leader who set the major strategic path for the business. After Jobs, Apple still has really effective leaders: Tim Cook, Craig Federighi and Jony Ive. These executives share Jobs’ vision and keep focusing on their high end share of the market. Apple is a globally operating company with over 50,000 employees and it has a vertical structure (Daft, 2014). Admittedly, it is difficult to have a horizontal structure for a global business. It is also important to note that the market of consumer electronics is very competitive. Thus, Apple’s iPhone has to compete with products of such companies as Samsung Electronics, Motorola, Nokia. As far as computing and software is concerned, the company has such competitions as Google, Microsoft, Micromax (India) and Xiaomi (China) (Grobart, 2013). It is necessary to add that the market of smartphones is quite saturated with cheap products produced in Asia. Worstall (2013) stresses that a phone at $700 is unlikely to compete with a smartphone sold for $200 and $300 especially in such markets as China, India, Brazil and Russia. Therefore, researchers see two major strategies applicable for Apple.Adver tising We will write a custom term paper sample on Strategic Development of Apple Corporation specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More Strategic Issues These strategies are concerned with the choice of the market share for the company. At present, Apply occupies quite a small share of the market. Apple’s products are seen as luxury and exclusive devices and services. The use of these products suggests that the user pertains to a specific group of privileges consumers (or simply lives in a developed country with strong economy). As Cook puts it, â€Å"There is always a large junk part of the market† (as cited in Grobart, 2013). Leaders of Apple tend to remain in their niche and do not think about expanding to larger markets. Nonetheless, some researchers see another option. They stress that Asian, South American and Russian markets are becoming a target for many companies. For instance, Worstall (2013) stresses that the potentia l of consumer electronics BRIC region (which includes Brazil, Russia, India and China) is increasing and people are more willing to by app-capable devices. Admittedly, people living in the area will not pay $700 for a phone as they have numerous cheaper alternatives produced in China and India. Notably, Apple is capable of reducing some costs and providing cheaper products. Nonetheless, Apple can lose its status of a company providing exclusive products and services. At that, researchers emphasizes that even though the company can introduce cheaper products they will be still unable to compete with $100-200 devices. Brief Literature Review Innovation There are numerous ideas on strategic development and each company can choose the best option in accordance with its goals and values. Jaruzelski and Dehoff (2010) claim that Apple has always used a strategy of innovation. The researchers stress that Steve Jobs did not try to make the company’s products cheaper or more available to consumers as he wanted to make innovative things that could change the market and the world.Advertising Looking for term paper on business economics? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More This strategy made the company one of the leaders in the global market and many companies are trying to keep up with standards set by Apple. Jaruzelski and Dehoff (2010) consider experience of successful companies operating in different markets and infer that the strategy of innovation is winning in the contemporary business world. Heracleous (2013) calls the strategy used by Apple the Quantum Strategy. According to the researcher, it implies â€Å"the ability to balance intense efficiency in operations with outstanding serial innovation and addictive product design† which â€Å"command premium pricing and redefine markets† (Heracleous, 2013, p. 92). The researcher evaluates the strategy used and concludes that it is effective as the company remains the leader and has its small (but profitable) market share. Importantly, the researcher stresses that this strategy enables Apple (as well as other companies using the same strategy) are able to set trends and standards and , as a result, they are one step forward. Davis and Olson (2008) also emphasize effectiveness of such way of development and notes that most successful companies employ the strategy of innovation. The researchers also add that it can be difficult to utilize this strategy as it needs significant funds especially when it comes to RD department. Nonetheless, the innovative approach helps companies achieve high results as well. Other Components of Success It is noteworthy that apart from innovation, researchers acknowledge that operational excellence is also central to the company’s success. Sharma (2012) argues that Jobs inspiring vision and focus on innovations could not ensure Apple’s success which was achieved by a combination of innovative approaches and operational excellence. According to the researcher, the company is successful as high quality and precision are major values shared by employees. Loads of companies choose this strategy and focus on quality and its i mage. They are valued for these characteristics and customers eagerly buy their products. Clearly, this approach is appropriate for many industries but consumer electronics is not one of these spheres. This industry is evolving rapidly and a company which fails to introduce new products often loses its customers. Jaruzelski, Loehr and Holman (2011) also mention the importance of an effective culture. Apple is famous for its culture based on principles of innovation attention to details, excellence and responsibility. The authors note that culture is a key to successful implementation of innovative strategies. The researchers stress that culture is a set of principles all employees follow. Employees of Apple share company’s values and the corporation manages to come up with new products periodically. Analysis of the Strategic Issue Winning a Larger Market Share As has been mentioned above Apple is facing a strategic issue. The company is growing and entering new markets as exp ansion is one of the most effective ways any successful company chooses (Thompson, Peteraf, Gamble Strickland, 2012). It is possible to expan in a number of ways. For such global corporation as Apple entering new markets is beneficial. Apple is already operating in developing countries but still occupies rather small market share. To ensure profitability and growing revenue, the company may choose to introduce cheap devices and occupy a larger market share. As has been mentioned above, many companies choose this approach in order to obtain millions of new customers in such regions as South America, Asia and Russia where vast majority of people cannot afford expensive products. The choice of this strategy will lead to sub-issues such as reducing costs and marketing new products. Thus, Apple will have to invest into development of cheaper models of existing devices or new cheap devices. Thus, RD costs will increase but there are chances that it will be impossible to reduce the price of existing products or new products to $100-200. More so, products at such prices will hardly differ from those provided by other companies (in China or India). Furthermore, development of cheaper products may extrude attempts to produce innovative products and services. There are chances that Apple will lose its status of a producers of innovative and luxury electronics and will lose its value. It will inevitably become one of many companies producing affordable products and will have to compete with a variety of other producers. The company’s marketing managers will have to come up with a wide advertising campaign and a marketing strategy to introduce new cheaper products. The company will have to make people know that Apple products have become more affordable. The use of this strategy will also require the change in the company’s corporate culture. The company has focused on innovation and exclusiveness. These values are inappropriate for a company that aims to ge t a larger market share and sell more affordable devices. Admittedly, all these changes need additional investment. All in all, this strategy is associated with too many risks and doubtful benefits. A larger market share will enable the corporation to increase its revenue due to sales volumes. Nonetheless, low prices of products and services will not lead to significant increase in profits. More so, the company risks entering a market with significant competition and, at the same time, lose its advantageous competitiveness. Therefore, this strategy is unlikely to be successful and should not be implemented. Holding the Same Market Share Another option is to stick to old strategies. Thus, Apple may hold its market share and remain a global producer of innovative and exclusive products. This strategy was already checked twice during severe crises within the company (Sharma, 2012). Adherence to the old strategy will involve significant investment into RD as the corporation will focus o n producing new innovative products. However, this investment will lead to increase in revenue as Apple’s customers are eager to buy from the company as they get something more than a device. They get a sense of being a part of a community of people who value innovation and quality (and those who can afford it). Marketing of new products will also need additional investment. People should know about novelties. However, this advertising is likely to be successful as customers will learn about a new innovative product which they will want to purchase. It is noteworthy that the company’s culture will not be changed and such values as quality, innovation and responsibility will be promoted. Admittedly, effective culture often translates into success. Discussion Methods Used The present assessment is based on the secondary research. Works on strategic development of Apple and its performance as well as data available on the official website are analyzed. Evaluation of the s trategy used is based on analysis of its effectiveness. It is possible to note that the use of this methodology can be associated with certain limitations. Hence, such research may lack for data on the company’s expenditures (especially when it comes to RD) as the works used contain information on revenues rather than losses. Nonetheless, the corporation’s revenues suggest that the strategy which is being used is effective and there is no need to choose another path. Though, it is possible to highlight some spheres in Apple’s strategic development which may need improvement. Research It is necessary to note that the company’s leaders emphasize their adherence to their old strategy of innovation. They do not intend to try to compete with low-priced products in emerging markets. The company’s CEO argues, â€Å"We are not in the junk business† (as cited Grobart, 2013, n.p.). As has been mentioned above, this strategy has proved to be effective and, hence, it is no time to change it. Admittedly, the company is growing and its revenues increase, but it is essential to continue developing and innovating (Thompson et al., 2012). Therefore, the strategy should be based on the principle of innovation and precision. In the first place, the company should focus on development of a number of innovative products and services. It has been acknowledged that Steve Jobs always felt what would be successful among customers (Hitt et al., 2012). However, serious competition requires more specific data than senses or beliefs. Thus, the company needs to invest into marketing research. It is essential to understand what customers expect and what exactly they need when they are buying this or that device. It can be beneficial to find out what customers value in Apple products and services. It is possible to implement an internal research but it is better to address a marketing research company which can provide information on the global marke t rather than a particular country. RD Apple’s RD department is very effective as it has come up with a variety of innovative devices. Nonetheless, it is possible to invest into further development of the department. The company employs more than 50,000 people worldwide and it can be a good strategy to launch a wide training campaign. Employees from different countries have to participate in mutual projects. Employees from abroad can travel to the USA and work on major projects. This can facilitate development of the company’s RD. The company has had certain criticism on development of different models which do not differ significantly from previous ones. Thus, Daft (2014) notes that it is difficult to come up with innovative products and companies often try to modify products which have already become hits. However, extensive modification will lead to customers’ tiredness and dissatisfaction. It is important to introduce genuinely innovative products as well as services as this will attract new customers and will satisfy needs of loyal ones. Quality The strategic development of the company should also involve particular attention to the products’ quality. It is well-known that Steve Jobs â€Å"routinely† returned products to the laboratory and emphasized that â€Å"Apple must build the best products, period† (Hitt et al., 2012). This should be a motto for each employee and a part of the company’s culture. Quality control of the company has to be strict and no flaws can be allowed in products sold. This is one of advantageous peculiarities of the company and it is essential to maintain this image. Marketing As has been mentioned above, this strategy does not require excessive advertising. However, each new product has to be advertised through the Internet, TV and print sources. The focus of each advertisement should be innovative nature of the product. Existing and potential customers have to associate the compa ny with innovation and development. Social Responsibility Some companies focus on revenue or RD and fail to be socially responsible. Apple should remain a responsible corporation which contributes into development of communities. Development of new products has to be implemented with specific attention to environmental or social projects. The use of green technology also pertains to innovations and this is a beneficial direction for the company (Hitt et al., 20). Social responsibility of Apple is another advantage of the corporation and this should remain unchanged. Conclusion On balance, it is possible to state that Apple is now facing the need to choose whether the corporation tries to get a larger market share or remain in its niche and continues producing innovative products. Analysis of works on strategic development of the company suggests that Apple should adhere to its old strategy as it proved to be successful. It is associated with fewer risks and it is likely to keep the company in its leading position. The strategy should be comprehensive as it cannot be confined to a vague concept of innovation. Thus, the corporation will have to invest into RD and control departments to ensure that the products provided are innovative and high-quality. Apple will also have to pay attention to proper marketing of new products and it is essential to focus on such concepts as quality, innovation, exclusiveness and social responsibility. Finally, the company has to be involved in a variety of social and environmental projects. The use of green technologies and contributing to development of communities (especially in regions where the company operates) should also be a part of strategic development of Apple. The use of this strategy will enable the company to maintain its status of an innovative company which shapes people’s ideas on electronics, software and life. Reference List Apple reports second quarter results. (2014). Retrieved from apple.com/pr/library /2014/04/23Apple-Reports-Second-Quarter-Results.html Daft, R. (2014). The leadership experience. Stamford, CT: Cengage Learning. Davis, A., Olson, E.M. (2008). Critical competitive strategy issues every entrepreneur should consider before going into business. Business Horizons, 51(1), 211-221. Grobart, S. (2013, September 19). Apple chiefs discuss strategy, market share – and the new iPhones. Bloomberg Business week. Retrieved from businessweek.com/articles/2013-09-19/cook-ive-and-federighi-on-the-new-iphone-and-apples-once-and-future-strategy Heracleous, L. (2013). Quantum strategy at Apple Inc. Organizational Dynamics, 42(1), 92-99. Hitt, M., Ireland, R., Hoskisson, R. (2012). Strategic management cases: Competitiveness and globalization. Mason, OH: Cengage Learning. Jaruzelski, B., Dehoff, K. (2010). How the top innovators keep winning. The Global Innovation 1000, 61(1), 1-16. Retrieved from strategyand.pwc.com/media/file/Strategyand_Global_Innovation_1000_2010_How_Top_ Innovators_Keep_Winning.pdf Jaruzelski, B., Loehr, J., Holman, R. (2011). Why culture is key. The Global Innovation 1000, 65(1), 1-16. Retrieved from strategyand.pwc.com/media/file/Strategyand-Global-Innovation-1000-2011-Culture-Key.pdf Sharma, A. (2012). As Apple’s success attests, operational excellence isn’t everything, but it is essential. Strategic Vision. Retrieved from tbmcg.com.cn/misc_assets/newsletter/OpEx_0812_Apples_Success.pdf Thompson, A.A., Peteraf, M.A., Gamble, J.E., Strickland, A.J. (2012). Crafting and Executing Strategy. Boston, MA: McGraw Hill Publishers. Worstall, T. (2013, January 18). Apple’s basic strategic problem: Market share or profit margin? Forbes. Retrieved from forbes.com/sites/timworstall/2013/01/18/apples-basic-strategic-problem-market-share-or-profit-margin/

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Chapter 9 Discussion - Essay Example Moral decisions are always required to cater to moral skepticism that haunts all of us in our modern life and moral ideals are virtues that can help us overcome the universal dilemma of right and wrong. However, the issues of right and wrong may not always hold true in different situations. Nevertheless, the moral ideals of honesty, justice and courage are the trinity that can help moral decision-making even when the end or means seem clouded with thoughts of right and wrong. Say for instance, whatever be the situation a person having courage to face the truth can be honest to himself or herself about the true thoughts that are there in his or her mind or he/she can face the truth about the situation honestly with the courage to face it all. Justice can objectively help the person to come to a fair decision where the sense of honesty will always help the person to take the side of truth and not give in to any temptations that are wrong or whatever stands to be wrong in a certain situ ation. The main aim is not to get blinded by passion or personal vengeance or subjective beliefs. Whatever be the situation an honest person will always know what is right or wrong – to support the right side requires the moral ideal of courage and to take a step towards the right decision making takes more than courage – it takes the sense of Justice and impartial and objective decision-making to see the truth and justify it. Without a sense of Justice, which helps to evaluate situation, its merits and demerits, one can fall prey to rash decision-making or one can take up arms against a situation through the sheer impulse of courage, once they know that they are right. However, honesty alone cannot help in objective decision-making that also requires prudence and steeling the will to face the truth, as it may not always be pleasant. Justice is the cornerstone of law and it always imbues in us a kind

Microeconomics Math Problem Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Microeconomics - Math Problem Example For example, if the company decides not to fly, it will still incur the fixed costs as they are not related to the output. It will only save the variable costs. In this situation there's no revenue as firm's planes are lying idle. In this situation the firm will still have to pay its insurance and incur depreciation incurring a loss of $4000. However, if it flies between the two cities it makes a loss of only $2000. Hence, it is better for the company to fly between the two cities. However, if it keeps on making losses and they extend to the long-run, then it is better for the firm to shut-off its operations and invest its capital in an industry, where it could make a normal profit. b) At the product price of $28, the production will fall to 5 units. At his point the firm will be making a loss of = 140 - 175 = ($35). Despite the loss, the firm will continue to produce as it covering its variable costs. c) At the product price of $22, there will be no production at all. Looking at the data, the firm will try to equate its price with MR and the resulting output according to this should be 2 units. However, the revenue gained from this will be only $44, whereas the average costs will be $75, as a result the firm will not produce at all as its revenue is less than average costs and it will only increase the loss if the firm decides to go with the production. S

Discrimination Concerning African Americans Essay Example for Free

Discrimination Concerning African Americans Essay Differences in race lead to divergent levels of economic development within the United States. Analysts often try to explain this phenomenon by observing a specific ethnic groups tradition and cultural ideology. Economists expand their analysis on the economic behaviors of African Americans by taking into consideration personal histories and value systems of the group under study. American families measure economic status in terms of income, and factors associated with material security as a whole. These factors may consist of health care, college funds, and retirement plans. However, African American families lag well behind when conceptualizing economic development under these terms. The reason is due to numerous instances of discrimination that occur in the U. S. Many of Americas public policies aid in the underdevelopment of non-white families. Increased economic development within America is the key to upward political and social mobility. If minorities are denied inevitable rights to equality, access to economic development becomes a highly difficult process. Despite Americas idealized view on equal opportunity, it is valid to assume that economic security has been limited on the basis of race. Therefore, it is important to investigate why white American families are economically better-off than non-white American families. One must take into account aspects of political participation, education, and the number of children a family has in the home in order to understand this research question. Contemporary Viewpoints: The lack of political participation of minority groups is a prevalent issue within the United States, explaining why non-white American families are less economically developed when compared to white American families. According to Douglas S. Massey (1995), minority families increasingly speak languages and bear cultures quite different than the established norms within the U. S. regime. He has found that ethnic groups carry their customs into new generations, leading many non-white families to become displaced and impoverished. Brinck Kerr and Will Miller (1997) believe that it is necessary for non-white American families to participate in elections in order to obtain equal representation that they are now lacking. They go on to say that political representation is the key to higher employment levels, and is a significant determinant to the minority share of professional positions. William H. Frey (1996) finds that immigrants usually encounter highly stratified society characterized by high income inequality leaving little room for upward mobility. In addition, Paula D. Mcklain (1990) assumes that non-white American families will continue to reside in low economic subcultures that are institutionally incomplete if they are represented at much lower ratios relative to the population portions of whites. Susan Welch (1990) has found that minority groups have not even achieved half their population proportions in political elections. These numbers are even lower than what they were a decade ago. She states that other factors that lead to low political participation within minority groups is that a substantial number of non-white American families are not citizens, and therefore are not eligible to vote. Also, Massey has found that America enacts policies that hinder the socioeconomic status of immigrants for they are underrepresented at virtually all levels and institutions in United States government. Moreover, Friedberg and Hunt (1995) have found that non-white American families receive less benefits than white families because of geographic segregation within the community. The various dispersion of minority families in different low-income areas within the U. S. makes it difficult for these families to be represented proportionally. Consequently, Rodney E. Hero and Caroline J. Tolbert (1995) believe minority families can now be easily manipulated by government because they are not equally accounted for. Therefore, non-white American families are not able to take advantage of economically developed determinants such as health care and retirement funds. The inscription of the Statue of liberty expresses to the world to give me your tired, your poor, your huddled masses yearning to breathe free. America continuously contradicts itself on the validity of this concept due to the increasingly economic tension between Caucasian and non-white families. Friedberg and Hunt (1995) give the example of Proposition 187, which makes many non-white American families ineligible for certain services such as public health. Non-white American families are not given the opportunity to take advantage of benefactors the U. S. offers to white American families. Therefore, Non-white American families lack of political participation, and unequal representation in governmental institutions and legislative bodies, leads them to be less economically developed than white American families. Education is another obstacle to economic development that non-white families face. Education is a vital tool to economic security. However, Melissa Marschall (1997) has found that current policies demonstrate minorities have been denied equal access to education. She has found that assignment systems based on assessments of language deficiencies or other individual needs are used to separate non-whites from whites. According to Jeffrey J. Mondack and Diana C. Mutz (1997), inequitable school financing is equally detrimental to non-white students. Funding for public schools comes from property taxes. They go along to say that predomintly non-white schools tend to be in central inner city school districts which have a smaller property tax base. In addition, the Office of Civil Rights has identified practices that are termed second generation school discrimination. Practices such as ability grouping, suspensions, and tracking may appear on the surface to be normal educational practices. When examining these components closer, Brick Kerr and Will Miller (1997) have found they have a negative impact on minority students. Ability grouping is a form of segregation that separates minority students from whites. They have found that before even attempting to teach non-white students, they are diagnosed with having linguistic or intellectual problems. The students are therefore required to take special and bilingual classes, making it difficult for them to succeed. According to Robert E. England (1986), non-white students are many times pulled out of regular classes and placed into bilingual classes only on the basis of ethnicity rather than their understanding of English. Brick and Miller go on to explain that suspensions are a second tactic used to encourage the failure of minority students in school. Non-white students are given more harsh disciplinary sentences than white students. Moreover, studies show that the ratio of minority students kicked out of school is disproportionately higher than whites, making the students more likely to drop out. Marschall has found that schools also advocate differences in ability grouping and discipline, leading to distinctions in tracking between non-whites and whites. The majority white students in high ability groups are often counseled to choose college preparatory tracks. However, minorities in low ability groups are counseled into vocational or general tracks, making them less likely to attend post-secondary education. Mondack and Mutz believe that the overall pattern of racial inequality the school system has created makes non-whites less likely to receive a quality education than whites. This truth makes it difficult for economic development to occur within non-white American families. The number of children in a family lead to increased poverty levels and low economic development within non-white American families. M. Klitsch (1990) has found that minority women have children at an extensively higher rate than that of white women. Also, he states that non-white women represent a small percentage of the population, however they account for a greater number of births. Alejandro Portes and Cynthia Truelove (1987) go on to say that non-white families are generally poorer than white families because of the higher number of children in the home. This leads them to be more likely to live below the poverty line. In addition, Genevieve M. Kenney and Nancy E. Reichman (1998) have found the population of non-whites increases faster than whites every year due to high fertility rates. Similarly, the two have found that fertility rates of non-whites families living in impoverished communities is almost double compared to white families. Klitsch has found that non-white families have an estimated 5. 5 people to a household, while white families only 3. 8. Therefore, these high rates lead to low socioeconomic status, and limited opportunities to increase economic security. According to Kenney and Reichman, the high fertility rates are due to low percentages of minorities who use contraceptives. They have also found that non-white women are less likely to have an abortion than white women. One might view this as a positive aspect. However, Portes and Truelove believe that one must take into account the over a quarter of minority families who have an income below the federal poverty line, which is almost one half greater than those of white families. Therefore, the high number of children within non-white American families make them more likely to experience economic deprivation than white American families. There has been an abundance of scholarly research previously conducted on the economic differences between white and non-white American families. They usually consist of data sources such as the U. S. Immigration and Naturalization Service, and the U. S. bureau of the Census. The Foreign Born Population of the United States and Statistical Reports are used with the previously listed sources to compare ethnic groups (Friedberg and Hunt, pg. 5). These databases yield cross-sectional designs that develop into time series reports in order to make assumptions on variables dealing with GNP and income, proving distinct differences in the races under study. For instance, researchers assume that white families are more economically developed than non-whites. This is because the average white American family makes $44,000 a year, and the average non-white American family does not make half this amount (6-7). These figures are valid in drawing conclusions about correlative relationships, satisfying important ideological factors necessary to study when dealing with the dependent variable of race. A more effective method of analysis was a study derived from interviews in a low income Los Angeles county. The participants were white and non-white females. The study was conducted between January 1984 and May 1985 (M. Kitsch, 136-137). In addition, the sample consisted of a three-stage cluster of census tracks, blocks, and household addresses. This cross-sectional design embodied research dealing with fertility rates of different races. The minority women proved to have higher fertility rates in low income sectors, leading Klitsch to question the different ways non-white American families conceptualize economic development. Non-white American families have to deal with numerous accounts of racial discrimination. It is difficult for a non-white American family to become economically stable in terms of income and security plans. The reason is due to being a minority in a predominately white America. Therefore, non-white American families are less economically developed than white American families because: H1 non-white American families are less likely to participate in elections than white American families. H2 non-white Americans are more likely to be discriminated against in school than white Americans. H3 the more children in a household, the more likely a family will be economically deprived. Implications and Conclusion: Education, political participation, and the number of children a family has all affect the levels of economic development within the household for white American families. Even though education levels has a stronger affect toward higher levels of income, when the three variables are measured together, they are all highly statistically significant. In non-white American homes, education levels appears to be the key determinant of their economic status. Further test need to be measured in reference to how the number of children a family has and political participation affect the economic security of non-white American families. With this, the above hypotheses will prove to have more validity. However, in both cases it was important to measure education, the number of children a family has, and political participation together in order to understand the affect these variables have on each other, and how this affect leads to higher or lower levels of economic development within the family. These multivariate studies are also important in predicting the affect the independent variables will have on total family income in the future. It can be assumed that the highest year of school completed will continue to have a strong affect toward economic development in the future for both white and non-white American families. In addition, the number of children in a white American family and their political participation are significant variables to measure when determining their economic standpoint in future years to come. There are alternative approaches to identifying explanations to why non-white American families are less economically developed than white American families. One example is the difference in income between non-white and white American families who have single parents and ones that have two parents. Another alternative approach is identifying education as only an antecedent variable, and observing how it relates to occupation, the true independent variable under study. From here, one can observe how economic development is related to a persons occupation within the home. As anyone who walks the streets of Americas largest cities knows, there has been a profound transformation of different ethnic cultures within the United States. The rapidity of the change has led to growing competition of economic development between white and non-white American families. This competition has lead to ethnic prejudice and discrimination as the United States continues to assimilate into the melting pot for the American dream. Political participation, education, and the number of children within the home are variables that allow the transition to become a less arduous process for white American families. However, if non-white American families continue to do poorly in terms of economic development because of these variables, non-whites will continue to lag behind the income scale in comparison to whites. Research along these lines will lead to the study of relative differences between ethnic cultures. An example is the discovery of why almost half the number of minorities return to their country of origin after experiences of economic injustice. Previous research may also benefit other analysis in the field of economics by itemizing fertility rates in terms of the higher number of non-white American families who lack the finances to properly nourish their children. These new variables along with my research can in time become valid determinants in explaining why white American families are economically better off that non-white American families.

Analysis of Ghanas Economic Growth

Analysis of Ghanas Economic Growth An analytical review of the effect of conflict, politics and resources on the economic growth of the country. 1.0. Introduction 1.1. Ghana in 1957 Some fifty years ago, Dr Kwame Nkrumah stood before a throng of cheering fellow Ghanaians, proclaiming independence from the British Empire. â€Å"At long last, the battle is ended†, he bellowed triumphantly, â€Å"Ghana, your beloved country is free forever† (Nkrumah, 2007). Such were the words that signalled the end of British rule and the start of a new era for the former Gold Coast, which had succeeded in becoming the first independent nation in Africa. By doing so, she set a hopeful precedent to other former colonies which would shortly and eagerly follow in Ghana’s footsteps. For the â€Å"model colony† the future, at this point, looked bright. As a nation with â€Å"advantages of wealth and attainment unrivalled in topical Africa† (Meredith, 2005, 22), Ghana was expected to take the world by storm, swiftly join the ranks of the industrial nations, and proudly serve as a shining example to the post-colonial world (Dzorgbo, 2002, 2-3). There was nothing far-fetched about this optimism. She was, in 1957, one of the most economically advanced countries in sub-Saharan Africa. Income per head was double that of the Tanganikans, substantially more than the Zambians, and almost on a par with the Rhodesians (Alpine and Pickett, 1993, 64). Contributing to this private wealth was the lucrative trade in the export of cocoa whose production Ghana dominated by this time. Such a presence within the international commodity market helped shore up the already substantial amounts of foreign reserve her government held. Yet all of this failed to happen. Several years after independence, Ghana’s economy began to totter, her foreign reserves evaporated, and reckless public spending placed the country on a financial precipice – all this by the end of the 1960s (Konadu-Agyeman, 2000, 473). There was to be no let-up. The economic downturn continued into the 1970s where Gross Domestic Product (GDP) fell more than three percent each year. Price inflation averaged at around 50 to 100 percent. Worse was to follow. By the beginning of the 1980s, inflation reached more than 100 percent, GDP levels fell further into the abyss, and one of the worst famines hit the country (Sandbrook, 1982, 2). Nothing, it now seemed, could go right. She had little choice but to solicit help from abroad. 1.2. International intervention and neo-liberalism Following the implementation of economic restructuring programmes, created by the International Monetary Fund (IMF) and the World Bank, Ghana finally emerged out of her desperate trough in 1983. Inevitably questions were asked. Why had Ghana struggled for so long? How could she so comprehensively dash the hope and goodwill in the immediate years after independence? Many factors, in the view of the IMF, had contributed to her demise: mismanagement, over-regulation, failure to tackle inflation, and currency over-evaluations headed the depressingly long list (Konadu-Agyeman, 2000, 473). Correspondingly, strings were attached to how IMF funds were to be used: the devaluing of the currency, the Cedi; the withdrawal of subsidies; the retrenchment of labour; the reduction in public expenditure; and the liberalisation of trade and exchange controls. Such measures, which took their cue from a resurgent neo-liberalism, have proved to be a mixed blessing. Even though, on the one hand, the adoption of these policies helped rein in inflation, created steady currency fluctuations and boosted the production of cocoa, they also led, on the other hand, to increased unemployment, ushered in stiff and unfettered competition from abroad, and generated substantial social discontent. So much of the welfare state had been taken away, in fact, that the weak and the poor were falling through the net. But a final verdict on the effectiveness of these policies is still too early to call. Even so, it would be true to say that many of these neoliberal suggestions, which underpin the IMF’s Structural Adjustment Programmes (SAP), have not come from an appreciation of the peculiarities of the African predicament in general or the Ghanaian one in particular. Rather they draw from the successes of the East Asian Newly Industrialized Countries (NICs) which, it is argued, managed to free themselves from the shackles of perennial underdevelopment by creating growth through the export of value-added products. Such a way of proceeding, it has been reasoned, could be replicated within the African context. Much of the reason why Ghana failed in the years after independence from developing economically, this model suggests, was because she promoted a policy of protectionism. Rather than achieve industrial growth and economic development Nkrumah said it would, his policy of Import Substitution Industrialization (ISI), which erected tariffs so as to nurture domestic industry, did the opposite and halted diversification and competitiveness. All of which had now come home to roost, in the opinion of neo-liberalists, who now called on government to shrink. The new policy of SAP, based on exports, has at first glance much to recommend it, especially with regard to Ghana. Even a cursory look at Ghana’s colonial past yields firm illustration of why an export-based economy could make sense. During the days of the British Empire, Ghana had been forced to open up to the international market not least because she offered precious resources and material such as gold, sugar and cotton. Such a colonial emphasis on international trade, to be sure, substantially benefited the colonisers and not the colonised. Even though the British emphasis on exports had the effect of neglecting domestic industry, the legacy the Empire left behind was nonetheless one in which the economy thrived on her exports (Frimpong-Ansah, 1991, 67). Counterfactually-speaking, therefore, had Nkrumah implemented economic policies which aimed to promote exports rather than seek to curtail them, then Ghana may have been spared from the title question: what are you doing here? 1.3. Problems and solutions for the Ghanaian economy If only things were that simple. Even though one might forcibly argue that Ghana’s economy is orientated towards the international market, the kind of exports she has traditionally exported – and is currently exporting – would not have contributed much towards sustained growth. Nor do present circumstances hold hope that things would be any different either. Primarily, as the World Trade Organization has outlined, Ghana is still â€Å"heavily dependent on agriculture, especially cocoa, and on natural resources, notably minerals. Primary production accounts for almost half of GDP; agriculture at 40%, is the most important sector. Manufacturing contributes some 10% of GDP. Services are the second largest component† (WTO, 2001). Much of this primitiveness must be sought, once more, in British colonial policy, which saw little need to invest any substantial sums into creating a more sturdy and versatile infrastructure. Raw materials, such as Ghanaian cocoa, were kept just that – raw – to keep prices down, prevent competition to British firms by not having processing facilities, and turn Ghanaian subjects into obedient consumers of the finished product that would be shipped in from abroad. As Immanual Wallerstein put it with reference to Africa generally: â€Å"Whatever the motive for entering the world agricultural market and whatever the social organization of export production, each colonial administration, as the political arm of the metropole, sought to tie a segment of the African population into the larger imperial economy either as independent producers or as wage-workers, and in all cases as consumers† (Wallerstein, 1986, 18). He could have just as well been talking about Ghana. Such colonial legacies mean that even today Ghana’s raw materials continue to be dictated by external conditions. Since primary products are easily affected by the vagaries of the weather as well as by the fluctuating international market, export-led economic development would almost certainly prove to be a bumpy ride. More specifically, it means that: â€Å"When stocks are low and pries high farmers can increase their planting, but they cannot compress the time it takes crops to ripen to harvest When farmers eventually increase production, prices fall as supplies quickly outgrow demand in importing countries, given that demand does not grow significantly in response to lower prices. The result is a pattern of short-lived booms followed by lingering slumps† (Food and Agriculture Organization, 2004). Such descriptions invoke a viscous circle from which Ghana would find hard to escape. From this lesson follows the glaring need to diversify the country’s economic base, if it is to avoid the ‘booms’ and ‘slumps’ of an economy ensconced within agriculture. â€Å"While traditional exports, such as cocoa and gold, may remain an important source of growth and foreign exchange in the future,† the World Bank contends, â€Å"export diversification will be necessary to accelerate economic growth and poverty reduction and to decrease Ghana’s vulnerability to external price shocks† (World Bank, 2001,1). To be fair, it has not been from a lack of effort that Ghana has failed to diversity sufficiently, for political circumstances have repeatedly conspired to hold up any sustained drive. Liberal approaches to economic development, which Nkrumah’s successors aimed at, fell fowl of a coup, while two later regimes which tried to develop indigenous strategies of development were ousted in similar circumstances. Clearly political conflict and change have impacted hard on Ghana’s economic growth – arguably negatively on the whole – and, if the IMF anoraks are in any way right, stability in the present governmental set-up would finally lead the country to the elusive goal that had seemed possible during the few years after independence. 1.4. Objectives and organization Enmeshed within all these complicated factors, which this introduction has served to outline, the economic growth of Ghana must, at least for the moment, take place within the neo-liberal strictures imposed by the IMF, which has set great store by small government and export-led growth. Conflict, politics and resources will, in this investigation, be reviewed therefore need to take account of the domestic as well as international setting, so as arrive at a more rounded appreciation of how all these factors have affected economic growth in Ghana. Looking at past attempts to create economic growth as well as current trade policies designed to do the same, this study will offer both a historical as well as a contemporary analysis of the Ghanaian economy. Perhaps reaching beyond the remit of the brief, the study will also powerfully suggest that, as things stand as they do, Ghana’s economic future is set to remain a bleak one. More favourable rules of trade must be implemented, the thesis recommends, without which she will not be able to continue to diversify her economic base. To illustrate these points, the investigation is divided into the following chapters. Chapter two, below, will review some of the basic economic models which have found application in Ghana since her days as a colony of the British Empire. Chapter three will then focus on the implementation of these development theories from a historical perspective, analysing the various regimes as well as their ideological leanings which contributed to the kind of policies they came up with. Chapter four will then assume a more specific and contemporary focus, reviewing the extent to which international agreement on trade has impacted on economic growth in Africa in general and in Ghana in particular. Finally, chapter five will consider how tariff and non-tariff barriers, with reference to the EU, have influenced the shape of the Ghanaian economy. 2.0. Theories of Economic Development Before this investigation can examine in detail how various factors have influenced Ghana’s economic growth, one should stop to consider the kind of economic thinking that has undergirded the disparate policies she has resorted to in order to achieve prosperity down the years. Such a detour is necessary if we are to fully appreciate the broader economic and political climates in which policies have been conceived. 2.1. Free trade and nationalism During her time as a colony of the British Empire, Ghana had been forced to adopt a mercantilist system of trade which functioned as the principle form of economic thinking that dictated the way nations engaged with each other, economically-speaking, until the late eighteenth century. Much of modern economic thinking grew out of a backlash against this closed system, which put the nation before the individual and which saw wealth as finite. Inspired by the work of Adam Smith, who wrote his seminal The Wealth of Nations in 1776, liberals criticized how mercantilism elevated the position of the state out of all proportion to the role it should play in the functioning of the economy. By contrast, Smith felt that the state should limit itself to providing three basic duties to society: First, the duty of protecting the society from violence and invasion of other independent societies; secondly, the duty of protecting, as far as possible, every member of the society from the injustice or oppression of every other member of it, or the duty of establishing inexact administration of justice; and thirdly, the duty of erecting and maintaining certain public works and certain public institutions which it can never be for the interest of any individual, or small number of individuals to erect and maintain; because the profit could never repay the expense to any individual or small number of individuals, thought it may frequently do much more than repay it to a great society.(Smith, 1863, 286) From this basic framework, in which the individual would have access to basic rights and protection from violence, Smith recommended that the government retreat and allow the individual to develop on their own, especially with regard to economics. â€Å"Every man, as long as he does not violate the laws of justice†, he proclaimed, â€Å"is left perfectly free to pursue his own interest his own way, and to bring both his industry and capital into competition with those of any other man, or order of men.† Not only did he feel his thinking needed to apply to the domestic sphere but also the international one too, for â€Å"commerce, which ought naturally to be, among nations, as among individuals, a bond of union and friendship† had broken down into a series of international conflicts because homos economicus operated from the assumption that they had to steal from one another rather than share the wealth available. More specifically liberal thinking envisaged a world based on three pillars: first was the belief that free trade promoted economic growth and consumption; second, that it improves societal values and ideals; and third, that free trade would promote a more peaceful international environment because greater interdependence would lead to a convergence of interests among societies (Harlen, 1999, 735). Most pioneering in the implementation of these ideals was Britain which threw down the gauntlet to her rivals by tearing down protectionist barriers, such as the Corn Laws, in the middle of the nineteenth century at a time when mercantilism dictated the opposite and discouraged trade between European powers. Soon European countries followed suite in gradually adopting policies that were more liberal in outlook. Nations such as France, Sweden, Belgium, Portugal and Spain all moved towards the liberalization of their tariff system. But such an open period proved to be short-lived as nationalistic concerns rowed the liberal boat back to shore. By the 1870s, for example, Austria-Hungary increased duties and Germany followed at the end of the decade; France also upped her tariffs in 1881, modestly initially, then sharply in 1892, while other countries returned the favour in kind (Krasner, 1975, 325). Much of the problem had been that, in following Britain, which had embarked upon industrialization much earlier than the European continent, the benefits which European countries could reap from liberalizing their markets would be far from worthwhile, not least because their own infant industries could not compete with those of Britain, which had far more established businesses that had the muscle to blow those of the continent out of the water. Bitter about the lessons that had been learnt at the hands of the British, nationalist economists, while seeing the benefits of free trade, came to point out that liberals â€Å"did not adequately address the problems of how economically and politically weak countries might ensure their national security in a world where free trade did not exist† (Harlen, 1999, 739). Such a dilemma was not only shared by European countries but also by the United States whose economic power was no match to Britain’s at this time. If the United States were to compete on Britain’ terms, economist Alexander Hamilton noted, â€Å"the want of reciprocity would render them [United States] the victim of a system which should induce them to confine their views of Agriculture, and refrain from Manufactures† (Hamilton, 1964, 138). Such a view implied that open competition would only result in the stronger country dictating terms and keeping the weaker one in almost perpetual underdevelopment. Consequently, in order to compete, diversification of the country’s manufacturing base had to be effected, an objective that could only be realized if government helped out and, to cite Hamilton once more, â€Å"encouraged the introduction of foreign technology, capital, and skilled labor †¦ and adopt protectionist trade policies, including tariffs, quotas and bounties, to bolster its fledgling industries†. Similar conclusions were reached by the German political economist Friedrich List, who laid down in his National System of Political Economy the need to dispense with the ideology of free trade in the short term in favour of empowering the state to protect and boost its infant industries and build up a skilled workforce. Only when this was done, List also argued, could countries move towards a policy of liberalization. 2.2. Theories of development Following the end of the Second World War, which signalled the end of colonialism, a similar yet different schools of thought emerged, which centred on the issue of how newly-independent former colonies could ‘catch up’ and attain economic prosperity. Such thinking took shape during the Cold War so that development theory, as it was called, took influences from both the right and the left – from capitalism to Marxism – to produce the following ways of thinking about development: modernization, structuralism, dependency theory and neo-liberalism. Typically, modernists believe development have to be achieved through linear progression, from a ‘traditional’ to a ‘modern’ society’ (Rostow, 1968). During the ‘traditional’ stage the country would be limited by weak government, poor technology and communications and overreliance on subsistence agriculture. Eventually however these societies would accumulate ‘preconditions of take-off’ in which foundations are laid, such as the creation of private business, banks, schools and hospitals; but such a society still lacks the productivity necessary to make the big jump. To achieve ‘take-off’ the economy would need to show signs of rising investment and savings as well as the rapid expansion of industry and agriculture. Even though the economy would have to experience some turbulence along the way towards maturity, it would do so by stripping itself of the very industries that had helped in the take-off. Finally, countries would, under this theory, enter the age of mass consumption when an affluent society would be born. Most importantly, in order to achieve the various stages of development and pass through them, the state had to be interventionist. Even though these thinkers insisted on the virtues of private enterprise, they also insisted that the Third World needed a plan or blueprint which governments could follow. A different take on modernization, which rejected the linear path of development, was Latin American structuralism. Ultimately, it sought the reason for underdevelopment in the unbalance of trade between raw commodity producers and manufacturers. More capital and technology would, it was argued, lead to a turnaround in fortunes. Crucially, developing countries had been apportioned the almost exclusive role of primary product producers within the international division of labour. As Raul Prebisch, a prominent proponent of this analysis, saw it, there were two problems associated with being predominately a primary goods exporter. First, he saw that technological advancement in the industrial core would lead to the creation of synthetics for natural products. Such a shift away from a dependence on raw materials, such as rubber, would have a detrimental impact on the economies of those who sought to profit. Second, he discerned the tendency that as per capita incomes increase, demand for primary products, such as food, would remain stable, while by contrast demand for manufactured goods would rise (Prebisch, 1964, 7). All of this meant that, without the prospect of the developed world consuming more primary products, developing countries had to face the prospect of â€Å"price volatility in the short term and declining terms of trade over the long run†. Such defects in the international system would be overturned through industrialization, which would decrease dependence on primary products and increase ability to export processed products. Importantly, however, structuralism shared with modernization theory the need for government to play a major role in supporting and protecting infant industries through tariffs and non-tariff barriers. Only by doing so, it insisted, could developing counties compete at all. Such was part of the reason why the policy of import-substitution industrialization (ISI) was created and propounded in the hope that an emphasis on industrialization would promote growth. Yet the problem with structuralism was that it took as a given the outer context of the capitalist international economy. Accept this, dependency theorists countered, then there was only the prospect for further dilemmas for developing countries. As a chief proponent of this idea, Andre Gunder Frank showed, in his book Capitalism and Underdevelopment in Latin America: Historical Studies of Chile and Brazil, that underdevelopment was caused by the very nature of global capitalism. Two divisional structures had emerged in which one camp would function as the metropolis centre and the other would serve as the peripheral and perennial satellites. Such a structure was largely exploitative in that â€Å"the metropolis expropriates economic surplus from its satellites and appropriates it for its own economic development. The satellites remain underdeveloped for lack of access to their own surplus and as a consequence of the sae polarization and exploitative contradictions which the metropolis introduces and maintains in the satellite’s domestic economic structure†. So he concludes pessimistically that â€Å"economic development and underdevelopment are opposite faces of the same coin† (Frank, 1969, 8). Such thinking formed the basis for the rejection of schemes such as ISI, since they only helped entrench even further a form of â€Å"dependent development† in which developing countries would become wholly reliant on the developed world for capital and investment. As long as this state of affairs continued, dependency theorists warned, developing nations could not share in the wealth of a capitalist world economy. Rather, it was argued, nations should move towards a socialist path of development, with the Soviet Union as a model of a country that had managed to industrialize without recourse to capitalism. Such an interpretation of development, it hardly needs to be mentioned, left room for any viability in the policies of ISI that had emerged under the structuralist banner. As it turned out, ISI failed to deliver on its promises of creating industrial competitiveness. In fact greater inequalities arose due to the way in which certain industries were protected so that they ended up with excess capacity, inefficiency and low quality. More worryingly, the fact that the state controlled licensing and foreign exchange meant that it encouraged â€Å"rent-seeking, corruption, smuggling, and black market as well as inefficiency in the allocation of resources† (Cohn, 2005, 378). Problems identified by dependency theorists proved to be prophetic. 2.3 The return of liberalism Even so, the inadequacies of ISI did not prevent the liberals, emerging out of the shadow of criticisms, from drawing different conclusions. For they sought the root cause of developing countries’ inability to move away from their state not in the unfair international system, which was inherently set up to keep them underdeveloped, but in incompetent government. What needed to be done, in other words, was to keep out the hand of government and allow market forces to operate. Evidence that the neoliberals were correct was provided by the promising growth of East Asian countries which based their economic development on exports. Examples such as Taiwan and Korea, which both witnessed strong rates of growth, conferred confidence on neoliberal analysts who sought the success of these countries to an â€Å"evolutionary process of industrially induced modernization and structural transformation †¦ locating an appropriate development niche within the global economy which may be exploited by implementing sound development policies based on conventional neoclassical economic principles† (Bruton, 1998, 107). From all these examples neoliberals re-built the edifice to their economic thinking. Clear guidelines this time were issued governments to, for example, â€Å"eliminate exchange–rate controls, restrictions on international trade, deregulation of the financial sector, privatization of state enterprises, creation of an unregulated labor market, specialization according to ‘comparative advantage’ and market driven resource allocations, and generally defining a ‘minimalist’ role for the state in development† (Brohman, 1996, 108). Most developed countries, responding to the debt crisis of the 1980s, gradually appropriated these new policies. Within the developing world, however, the legacy of ISI left a chronic balance of payment problem so that many countries had substantial debts they owed to international financial institutions. Responding to the crisis, in which many developing countries were expressing inability to return the debts, the IMF and World Bank issued guidelines in which it was spelt out that these nations should adhere to structural (or neoliberal) reforms so as to achieve growth and stability. There was, in fact, little choice. As Walden Bello and Shea Cunningham have acutely noted, â€Å"Faced with the threat of a cut-off of external funds needed to service the mounting debts they had incurred from the western private banks that had gone on a lending binge in the 1970s, these countries had no choice but to implement the painful measures demanded by the Bank and Fund† (Bello and Cunnigham, 1994). Such a move proved to be a watershed: it marked a shift away from an era of protection to a time of the free market, and it is within this climate that developing countries presently operate. In what follows one will review how these shifts and turns in economic developmental thinking impacted one particular country, Ghana. 3.0. Politics, ideology and economic policy Ever since her independence in 1957, Ghana has chopped and changed economic policy to the extent that she has tried pretty much all the development theories on which policy was forged. During the colonial period, she had been subjected to mercantile policies, which rendered Ghana an exporter of raw materials and an importer of finished consumer products. Tragically, this meant that wider socio-economic developments failed to take place, so that a diversification of her economic and industrial base away from the almost total reliance on a few basic resources could not be effected before British rule ended. 3.1. Nkruman and structural economics When Nkrumah assumed the mantle of power, he intended to push Ghana out of the underdeveloped into the developed world. Conceiving a Ten Year Development Programme, he established an Industrial Development Board (IDB), which was handed the task to develop the country’s manufacturing capabilities with the intent to pass them on to private enterprises when sufficiently grown (Dzorgbo, 2001, 148). But more substantive initiatives were carried out following the visit of Professor Arthur Lewis, a development economist, who argued strongly against any shock industrialization strategy in a country whose domestic market was limited; pursuit of large-scale industrialization would counterproductively remove resources away from the rural areas to the modern sector; and where shortage of labour would be aggravated by demand from industry. Far from adopting ambitious schemes, he put forward a series of modest proposals that were designed to prop up basic infrastructures so that a basis could be laid â€Å"for private foreign investment without the government having to bother offering special investment favours† (Dzorgbo, 2001, 149). Such a policy of â€Å"industrialization-by-invitation†, which was based on modernization theory, took a dim view of the ability of the government to access funds and take industries under its wing in a way Nkumah had initially intended. Even so, many of these recommendations were both enthusiastically and modestly accepted. Between 1950 and 1962, the Ten Year Plan adjusted to sing the tunes of a need above all for strong infrastructure. More specifically, it successfully constructed roadways and bridges to connect the various parts of the country, while it built the hydroelectric Akosombo Dam to secure the energy base needed for industrialization. Efforts were also invested in the setting up of transportation systems, while in the realm of social development, the government increased access its population had to water and education. Free primary education became available for all by 1960 and secondary education was expanded rapidly too. Enrolment in schools almost doubled across the board in the 1960s, with some 36,414 students registering in secondary schools, technical colleges, polytechnics and pre-university schools (Dzorgbo, 2001, 153). Such impressive improvements were capped off by improvements in health care services which saw new hospitals and clinics open. Despite the fact that Nkrumah government had followed and even bettered the recommendations of Lewis to improve the socio-economic infrastructure of the country, it grew impatient of the gradualist approach to economic development. More specifically, it became disillusioned by the â€Å"industrialization-by-invitation† policy because it had not led to the diversification of the economic base necessary for stability in the long run. Even though substantial amounts of FDI had been expected, following adoption of Lewis’ ideas, little of it had materialised. Those which had were taking the country for a ride. For example, during the construction of the Akosombo Dam, Nkrumah sought financial assistance from the United States. Eventually the firm Kaiser Aluminium Company came forward to underwrite some of the costs of the project. But conditions were attached that it as well as it